• General State of the Economy
• Energy Resources
• Energy Balance
• Energy Infrastructure
• Education and Innovation
• Ecology and Environment Protection
• References

Japan is a sovereign island nation in East Asia. Japan has maritime borders with Russia to the north, China to the north-west, with North and South Korea to the west, and with Taiwan in the southwest. Japan is the 62^nd largest country the world, is home to around 124 million people, as of 2025. In terms of population density, the country is 39^th in the world [1,2,3].

Source: [1,2,3,4,5]

The country stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south; the total length of the country's coastline is 29 751 km [3].

Tokyo city at night. Envato Elements. 9XYBFJ2PW7

Japan is a unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy and its official language is Japanese. The administrative map of the country is divided into 47 prefectures [3]. The base of the country's economy is the service sector, accounting for three quarters of GDP; as well as the automotive sector, electronics, ships and steel. Japan is one of the ten strongest economies in the world, which is reflected in the presented diagram – Figure 1. By almost every indicator in the presented diagram, Japan places in the top 25% of the leading countries in the world included in the rating.

Since the early 1990s, the country has experienced a steady growth in GDP at purchasing power parity, both in general and per capita [4,5]. GDP at purchasing power parity increased from $5.599 trillion in 2021 to $5.761 trillion in 2023 (5^th place in the world)[3]. The country’s GDP at purchasing power parity per capita is significantly lower (51^st place in the world in 2023), but has also been demonstrating positive dynamics: from $44,500 in 2021 to $46,300 in 2023 [3]. The inflation rate rose from -0.23% in 2021 to 3.27% in 2023; according to this indicator, the country is 63r^d in the world [3].
The Global Competitiveness Report measures the effectiveness of the use of the country’s own resources for sustainable development. In addition to a number of economic indicators this index also takes into account such variables as education, health, level of innovation, etc.
High-technology exports in 2021 was 18% of manufactured exports. According to the Index of Economic Freedom, which is based on freedom of business, freedom from government intervention, property protection, and freedom from corruption, Japan was 38^th in 2024 out of the 184 countries considered. Japan's public debt as a percentage of GDP was 216.2% in 2022.

In Japan, there are practically no significant fossil resources, particularly when compared with those in the largest producer countries (Table 1). According to proven reserves of oil and natural gas, the  country is 77^th and 74^th in the world, respectively [3]. In terms of tons of oil equivalent, according to 2024 data, proved coal reserves were 90.8%, natural gas – 7%, oil – 2.2%, in oil equivalent of the total energy potential of the country's mineral resources (Fig. 5).

Table 1. Fossil energy resources of Japan

*share of the country’s reserves in world total is provided in brackets

 According to the Energy Information Administration [6] survey, in 2022 proven oil reserves totalled 44 million barrels, and according to [3] consisted of about 44 million barrels (Table 1). Proved natural gas reserves in Japan in 2021 were estimated at about 20.9 Bcm [3]. According to calculations, made by Advanced Energy Technologies, the methane utilization potential (using a the methodology based on methane emissions from [9] and coal reserves from [8]) amounted to around 3.4-8.5 Bcm.
Japan has a variety of renewable resources for energy production. A selection of basic indicators of this type of resource is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Renewable energy resources of Japan

 *for most of the territory of the country
**technically exploitable capability

The level of horizontal solar radiation in most of the country is between 3.8-4.1 kWh/m²/day [10].The distribution of wind resources is as follows: in the majority of the country the wind speed does not exceed 6.0-7.5 m/s; along the coastline of the island of Hokkaido, and in the north and south of Honshu, the wind speed can exceed 7.5 m/s at a height of 90 m [11]. These are positive indicators for the development of wind power, but both the high regularity of extreme wind gusts and the presence of frequent and destructive hurricanes in this region complicate its implementation.
According to 2013 data, the technically exploitable capability of hydro power in Japan, is 136 520 GWh/year [12], which is almost twice as high as, for example, Austria, which has a high level of development of hydro resources. This allows for Japan to intensively exploit hydro resources for electricity generation. More than 12.7% of Japan is covered by agricultural land and around 68.4% is forested [13,14].
Japan is one of the most tectonically active countries in the world, with almost 200 volcanoes;, as a result, the country possesses significant geothermal energy resources, estimated at 20 GWe [14]. According to [15], the potential of geothermal resources in Japan is 23 GWe – one of the highest in the world and higher than that of traditional leaders in geothermal energy such as Iceland, USA, Mexico, Philippines. The level of municipal waste generation in Japan was 0.95 kg per capita per day, which exceeds the performance of other countries in the region, for example, China – (0.43 kg per person per day) and South Korea – (1.00 kg per person per day). This resource is a valuable raw material for recycling or producing energy, the technologies of which have reached a very high level of development in Japan [16].

JAPAN, KOFU
Latitude: 35.67 Longitude: 138.55

Average daily sky coverage over 10 years of observations, %

Source: based on NOAA U.S. Department of Commerce
Detailed information: Interactive map of solar resources

JAPAN, KOBE
Latitude: 34.7 Longitude: 135.22
Average speed: 3.58 m/s, Operational share: 58%

Average daily wind speed for 10 years of observations, m/s, 10 m above the ground

Source: based on NOAA U.S. Department of Commerce
Detailed information: Interactive map of wind resources

According to the Statistical Review of World Energy 2024, total primary energy consumption in Japan in 2023 was 17.40 Exajoules, about 38.2% of which was from oil, 26.1% from coal, 19.2% form natural gas, 8.5% from renewable energy, 4% from nuclear energy, and 4% from hydropower [8]. Japan is the fifth largest oil consumer in the world and the fourth largest oil importer, as of 2022 [6]. Oil production between 2003-2023 remained practically unchanged, and lower than consumption levels, at between 100-130 thousand barrels/day [17]. The volume of oil consumption in the country since 2003 has shown a decline (Fig.2) and in 2023 totalled 3289 thousand barrels/day [17]. A report by the Energy Institute showed similar figures — 3 380 thousand barrels/day in 2023 [8]. Oil consumption in Japan in 2023 amounted to 3.289 million barrels/day [3]. In 2022, the main oil exporters to Japan are Saudi Arabia — 42%, and UAE — 34%, followed by Kuwait – 8%, Qatar – 8%, Ecuador – 2%, and remaining 6% from other countries [6].

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (Sep 2024) / www.eia.gov

Figure 2. The Production and Consumption of fossil fuels in Japan (left — coal, in the center — gas, right — oil)

In 2022, Japan was the largest LNG importer in the world. The consumption of natural gas in the country grew rapidly between 2001-2014, peaking in 2014 at 4.4 trillion cubic feet per year (Tcf/y) in 2014, before beginning to decline reaching 3,2 Tcf/y in 2023. According to [3], gas consumption in the country in 2022 was 92.843 Bcm, and the Statistical Review of World Energy 2024 [8] estimated gas consumption at 92.4 Bcm in 2023. The production of natural gas has been stable since 2000, not exceeding 139 Bcf and accounting for less than 2% of Japan’s natural gas consumption [17]. Japan imported 92.587 billion cubic meters of natural gas in 2022 [3]. In 2022, imports of liquefied natural gas from Australia, Malaysia, Qatar, Russia, USA, Brunei, and a number of other countries totalled 3,3 Tcf [17].
Coal consumption in the country between 2003 and 2023 remained practically unchanged, with small fluctuations, not exceeding 220 million short tons [17]; in 2023 according to the Energy Institute Statistical Review of World Energy 2024 it amounted to 4.54 Exajoules [11].
At present, electricity production in Japan is mainly driven by fossil fuels (Fig.3).

It is also worth noting that after the events of 2011 at Fukushima, when the 15-metre tsunami hit a nuclear power plant, causing tremendous destruction, the share of nuclear power in the production of electricity fell to almost zero (Figure 3); before that event its share was significant. The level of electricity production in the country in 2023 was 944.56 TWh. Of this total, the share of fossil fuels was 65.8%, nuclear power — 8.9%, hydropower — 7.1%,  and other renewable resources — 18.2% (Fig.6).
Japan’s position in the comparative diagram of energy index is shown in Figure 4.

A territorial map showing the distribution of the largest infrastructure projects of the fossil fuel sector in Japan is shown in Figure 5.
As previously mentioned, coal reserves account for 90.8%, the share of natural gas for 7%, and oil for 2.2% (Fig.5). The main oil and gas fields are concentrated in the country’s central regions o and in the northern Sapporo region.

Figure 5. Basic infrastructure facilities of the fossil fuel sector in Japan (click on the map to view a PDF version)

Twenty refineries have a total installed capacity of 3.5 million barrels/day (Fig.5) [20]. The country's largest refinery is Mizushima, owned by JX Nippon Oil & Energy, with an installed capacity of 380 200 barrels/day [21].
One of Japan's leading oil terminals is Chiba, and the largest oil storage facilities are Shirashima (35.2 million barrels) and Tomakomai-Tobu (34.0 million barrels) [22]. Crude oil is transported via oil pipelines with a total length of 174 km (Fig.5).
In the centre of Japan there are several large natural gas storage facilities, the largest of which is Katakai with a volume of 1.01 Bcm [23]. Gas is imported via more than 30 LNG regasification terminals, including 12 terminals with a capacity of more than 500 000 kL each, the largest of which is Sodeguara terminal with a total volume of 2 660 000 kL [24].

LNG tanker docked at the terminal. Yokohama, Japan

Gas is transported within the country via a network of pipelines with a total length of 4 456 km (Fig.5).
Japan is one of the world leaders in the development and commercialization of technologies for the production of synthetic fuels and extraction of unconventional fossil resources.
In 2009, in Japan, the INPEX Corporation, Nippon Oil Corporation, Japan Petroleum Exploration Co., Ltd., Cosmo Oil Co., Ltd., Nippon Steel Engineering Co., Ltd., and the Chiyoda Corporation completed the construction of the JAPAN-GTL demonstration plant with an installed capacity of 500 barrels/day in Niigata City; the purpose of the plant in to carry out research into the commercialization and improvement of GTL technology, which allows the use of carbon dioxide as a raw material [25].
Nine Japanese companies: Mitsubishi Gas Chemical, ITO-CHU, Jepex, Taiyo Oil, Total Di-Methyl Japan, Toyota Tsusho, JGC, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Mitsubishi Chemical have set up a joint venture to produce dimethylether in Niigata, with an installed capacity of 80 000 tons/year (with the possibility of increasing the capacity to 100 000 tons/year); the facility began producing fuel in 2008 [26].
Toyo Engineering Corporation is one of the world's licensors of methanol synthesis technologies and DME production, creating Micro-GTL technologies for FPSO, which allow for the utilization of associated petroleum gas in offshore fields [27].
Following years of research, a successful test production of 120 000 m³ of gas hydrates was carried out in 2013 off the shores of Atsumi and the Shumi Peninsula in the southeast of Japan [28], and in 2017 the country reported successful extraction of gas from the Nankai Trough field, whose potential is estimated by Japanese experts at 40 Tcf; approximately equal to 11 years of gas consumption in the country [29]. Japan dedicates considerable resources to researching the exploration and production of gas hydrates; if successful, the country would be fully provided with methane for many years. Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) is the absolute leader in this field in Japan.
The map of the territorial distribution of the largest infrastructure objects of electricity generation in Japan is shown in Figure 6.
The share of fossil fuels in electricity generation in Japan in 2023 was about 65.8% (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. Electricity production in Japan (click on the map to view a PDF version)

The country has a significant number of stations for the production of electricity from hydrocarbons, including ten oil stations with a capacity of more than 1 200 MW, nine gas-fired power plants producing more than 2 200 MW, seven combined-type power plants with a capacity of more than 1 500 MW, and nine nuclear power plants with a capacity of more than 2 000 MW, although nuclear production of electricity was discontinued following the Fukushima accident in 2011 (Fig.6). The resumption of nuclear power generation has not yet begun, but the government is committed to reviving their use [30].
Japan's largest power plants are: gas — Fuutsu, with a total capacity of 5 040 MW [31]; oil — Yokosuka, with installed capacity of 2 274 MW; combined type — Kashima with a capacity of 5 660 MW; coal — Hekinan, with and installed capacity of 4 100 MW; nuclear — Kashiwazaki-Kariwa with a capacity of 8 212 MW [32,33].
Hydroenergy in Japan accounts for 7.1% of in national electricity generation; it is represented by several hydro and pumped storage power plants, which in 2023 produced more than 72.08 TWh of electricity (Fig.6).
Japan is one of the world leaders in using the available hydropotential in the country. So, if we take advantage of data on water resources in the country — 136 TWh/yr (Technically exploitable capability) or 114 TWh/yr (Economically exploitable capability) [34], then it turns out that the level of hydro resource use in Japan is 60% — 72% of the total available potential, which roughly corresponds to similar indicators in highly developed countries with respect to the share of electricity produced by hydro resources as Norway or Sweden, and is far ahead of world leaders in terms of production volumes like China, Brazil and Canada.
It should also be noted that Japan is the second country in the world after China in terms of combined capacity of installed pumped storage stations — 28.3 GW [35]. The leader of generation among hydroelectric power stations is Okutadami with an installed capacity of 560 MW [36], among the pumped storage power plants — Okutaragi, with an installed capacity of 1 932 MW [32].
As of March 2019, Japan registered more than 100 small-scale hydropower plants up to 10 MW with a total installed capacity of 3577 MW (Fig.6).
Figure 7 shows the main infrastructure facilities in Japan for the production of renewable energy. Renewable in Japan are becoming increasingly important in power generation. Thus, the total production of electricity from renewable sources in 2023, excluding hydropower, amounted to 172.17 TWh — 18.2% of the total electricity production (Fig.7).

Figure 7. Renewable energy in Japan: solar, wind, geothermal and hydrogen (click on the map to view a PDF version)

A number of wind farms are located in coastal regions, in areas of relatively high wind activity. The largest of these, the Ishikari Bay offshore wind farm with an installed capacity of 112 MW, started its commercial operation in 2024 [37]. The level of global horizontal irradiation in some regions of the country reaches 4.1 kWh/m²/day and higher, which is a sufficient resource for energy production by means of photovoltaics [9]. As a result, there is a number of solar energy facilities, including 9 photovoltaic stations with a capacity of more than 45 MW each and another three under construction (Fig.7). The largest in the country, Sakuto, a Pacifico Energy Solar PV Plant with an installed capacity of 257.7 MW  [38].
As noted above, Japan has a very high potential for geothermal resources, but its share in electricity generation is low — 1.2% with a generation level of 3.01 TWh in 2023 (Fig.7).
However, Japan is among the top ten countries in the world in terms of total installed capacity for the production of geothermal energy — 603 MW, which in 2021 was 3.8% of the world's total [39]. Single and double flash geothermal stations are the most common. In contrast to Italy or the US, dry steam technologies are used extremely rarely. The country's largest combined power plant, Hatchobaru, with a capacity of 112 MW [40] operates in Oita Prefecture, in the northern Sapporo region — a 25 MW Mori Double Flash Geothermal Power Plant [41], Matsukawa Dry Steam Geothermal Power Plant with a capacity of 23.5 MW [42], as well as around seven Single Flash Geothermal Power Plants, the largest of which is the Kakkonda 1, 2 complex with an installed capacity of 80 MW [43]. Several Japanese companies are world leaders in the production of turbines for geothermal power plants, including Mitsubisi, Toshiba, and Fuji.
Japan is one of the leading countries in Asia for the production and use of hydrogen as an energy source for vehicles. As of April 2024, there were 21 hydrogen refueling stations, 13 of which are bus-compatible (Fig. 7). In Japan, there are several commercial compression and cryogenic plants for the production of liquid hydrogen, the largest of which are Sakai (5 400 Nm³/hr) and Kanagawa (4 726 Nm³/hr) owned by the Iwatani International Corporation [44,45]. Hydrogen is transported via pipelines with a total length of 1.2 km (Fig.7).
Figure 8 shows the main bioenergy objects of Japan for energy production.

Figure 8. Renewable energy in Japan: bioenergy and marine (click on the map to view a PDF version)

Bioenergy is being actively developed in Japan and, in 2024 bioenergy had an installed capacity of around 6.22 GWe (Fig.8).
The country has biomass and municipal garbage processing plants; biogas, biodiesel, bioethanol, pellet and landfill gas production. In Japan, there are a number of power plants that use biomass as raw materials; ten of them have a capacity of at least 30 MWel. The largest,  Handa power plant, is under construction and will have a capacity of 75 MWel, [46]. The landfill utilization facility Tokyo Harbour has a capacity of 0.275 MW and produces around 1.6 million m³ of gas with a methane content of 55%, annually [47].
DINS Sakai Co. can produce about 1,400 kL of bioethanol annually at the largest facility in the country — Sakai City [48].
Jeplan at Imabari No.1 Plant produces second generation bioethanol, which is derived from cellulose found in cotton fibres [49]. The main Japanese enterprise in the field of fuel production from biomass is Revo International Biodiesel Plant in Kyoto, which can produce 5 000 litres of biodiesel per day [50].
Recycling various types of waste into usable forms of energy is of great importance to the Japanese energy sector. There are a significant number of enterprises for the processing of municipal waste in the country, including 12 enterprises with a capacity of more than 25 MW. The leader in terms of generational output  is Tomakomai, with an installed capacity of 74 MW/h [51].
Japan has been particularly successful in processing industrial waste, which has been largely facilitated by the widespread adoption of advanced gasification technologies, particular plasma techniques. Utashinai, Eco Valley Plasma Gasification Plant is the leading facility for the plasma gasification of waste, producing an average of 7.9 MWh [53].
There are several biomass gasification plants in the country, including Daio (Kani-City), Babcock & Wilcox Volund Bio-mass Gasification Plant, which has an installed capacity of 9.3 MWh [54].
Japan is the largest consumer of wood pellets in Asia, and due to its lack of domestic wood resources, imports twice as much as it produces. In 2022 the Japan Wood Pellet Association reports that there are 137 wood pellet manufacturing facilities with a total production capacity of 150 000 tons. (Fig.8).
The tragedy at Fukushima radically changed the course of modern energy policy of Japan. In particular, in the Strategic Energy Plan [55], the period between 2018-2020 was specified as a time of internal institutional reform, electricity system reform, changes in the international energy supply structure, and an increase in shale gas supplies from North America.
There are a large number of innovative energy projects in Japan, but the principle developments are seen in the field of hydrogen. One such project is targeted at the organization of transportation of large volumes of hydrogen using Chiyoda's SPERA Hydrogen® technology. To achieve this, two plants will be built: one in Brunei, where hydrogen will be produced from local gas and then hydrogenated (hydrogenate plant) by reacting it with toluene and forming a stable methylcyclohexaneb compound (MCH); and the other in Japan, in the coastal region of Kawasaki, where hydrogen dehydrogenation (dehydrogenation plant) is carried out and redistributed to local consumers. The product is transported between the plants by tankers with capacity of hydrogen transportation: 210 tons/year, which is enough to fuel 40,000 cars with fuel cells [56, 57]. Another, no less ambitious project from the Hitachi and Marubeni companies, is aimed at providing hydrogen to private households through the use of fuel cells to generate thermal and electric energy in the country. Should the project be successful the demand for fuel cells could increase significantly [58]. Another revolutionary project has been conceived by the Toshiba Corporation, Tohoku Electric Power Co., Inc. and the Iwatani Corporation. They plan to build a large-scale hydrogen energy system with a capacity of 10,000 kW to compensate grid loads through the use of gaseous hydrogen in the city of Namiecho, Fukushima prefecture. System testing is scheduled for 2020 [59].
Also notable is the hydrogen supply chain project for forklifts. Hydrogen produced at the Yokohama City Wind Power Plant using electrolysis technology is supplied to local enterprises where it will be used in fuel cells to power 12 forklift trucks. The vehicles will be first used in Japan, and each of them will have a total capacity of 270 Nm³ of hydrogen. This project could reduce CO₂ emissions by at least 80% compared to forklifts running on gasoline or powered by electric grids [60]. More and more large-scale plans are being devised in Japan for the distribution of hydrogen filling stations. The Japanese government has announced its goal to make Japan carbon neutral by 2050 and to reduce dependence on thermal power as much as possible. Specifically, by 2030, the share of renewables in the energy mix (in terms of electricity generation) will be increased from 22%-24% to 36%-38%, while the share of nuclear power will remain at 20%-22%. The plan also aims to reduce dependence on LNG and coal from 37% and 32% in 2019 to 20% and 19% by 2030 [61].
By 2050, solar photovoltaic and wind power capacity is expected to increase by 20 and 11 times, respectively, driving the development of innovative technologies like next-generation solar panels and floating offshore wind power, which are needed to overcome location constraints and reduce costs [62].
Toray Industries plans to spend about 5 billion yen (40 million euros) on the construction of one of the world's largest sugar cane processing plants; the demonstration plant will have a capacity of 15 tons/day, and the necessary raw materials will be supplied from Thailand [65]. In recent years, Japan has been developing energy efficient and environmentally friendly "smart" cities. One such example is the small town of Fujisawa, located not far from Tokyo. Established in 2014 by Panasonic in partnership with other project participants, the design of the city, its buildings and streets, water supply systems, communication and management systems take into account the maximum possible use of the natural landscape and local climate features, as well as the latest innovations in this area, to reduce energy consumption and create ecological comfort for residents. Several aspects in this project are directly related to energy: large-scale use of solar panels; the use of generators for electrical and thermal energy based on fuel cells; active use of energy storage technologies using powerful batteries; sensor control of street lighting; the widespread use of LED lamps and electric vehicles; and much more. The expected reduction in energy consumption in this city is 30% [66]. Another initiative by Panasonic is a project in Tsunashima, near Yokohama,  that promises to be more ambitious as it will include a commercial zone in addition to residential buildings. The goals and means for achieving them are approximately the same — the maximum possible use of renewable sources for energy production (about 30%); reduction of CO₂ emissions; reduction of water consumption; and significant energy accumulation and storage [67].

The country demonstrates a relatively high level of CO₂ emissions, both in general and per capita. Japan is regarded as one of the 67 countries responsible for more than 90% of global CO₂ emissions related to energy, in the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2025.

Fuji and Pagoda. Envato Elements. U28ALM4YHG

In terms of forest area as a percentage of the country, Japan is 22^nd in the world and demonstrates a negative trend (170^th in the world), although it was previously noted that compared with 1990 the total forest area in Japan has not decreased. Japan is considered a major ecological debtor by the Ecological Footprint Atlas. The situation is brightened by a relatively high valuation of Japan in the Environmental Performance Index rankings (EPI) 2024, which focuses primarily on assessing the environmental performance of national governments. Here, the country is 27^th out of 180 countries.

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[60] Iwatani in hydrogen supply chain project, full-scale operations commence in Japan /13 Jul 2017 / Gasworld / www.gasworld.com
[61] The Electric Power Industry in Japan 2023 (PDF) / JEPIC / www.jepic.or.jp/en/data/pdf/epijJepic2023.pdf
[62] Strategic Energy Plan (PDF) / October 2021 / www.enecho.meti.go.jp/category/others/basic_plan/pdf/strategic_energy_plan.pdf
[63] GE Renewable Energy Selected to Provide 66 MW of Wind Power with 22 units for Japan’s Akita Region / 23 Jun 2017 / Windfair / w3.windfair.net
[64] Small-scale geothermal power development picking up in Japan / 27 Feb 2017/ ThinkGeoEnergy/ www.thinkgeoenergy.com
[65] Fast, low energy, and continuous biofuel extraction from microalgae / 28 Apr 2017 / Biofuels Digest / www.eurekalert.org
[65] Project Overview /Fujisawa SST / fujisawasst.com
[67] Panasonic and Nomura Real Estate Unveil Concept Plan for New Smart Town in Yokohama / Coenergia Group / coenergia.com

The sources of charts and curves are specified under the images.

For more information about the energy industry in Japan see here