• General State of the Economy
• Energy Resources
• Energy Balance
• Energy Infrastructure
• Education and Innovation
• Ecology and Environment Protection
• References

China, officially the People's Republic of China, is a country in East Asia. Its capital city is Beijing. The country has borders the DPRK and Russia (to the northeast), Mongolia (to the north), Kazakhstan and Russia (to the northwest), Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Afghanistan (to the southwest), Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan (to the southwest), and Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam (to the south). It has access to the Pacific Ocean.

Source: [1,2,3.4.5]

China is the second largest highly developed economy in the world, which is reflected in Figure 1. For 6 out of 10 indices the positioning of the country is higher than the world average, in the top 25% of the leading countries in the world included in the rating. However, in terms of economic freedom, China is below the world average. From the early 1990s the country experienced sustained GDP growth in purchasing power parity both in general and per capita [4,5]. Over the last few years GDP at purchasing power parity has grown from $23.00 trillion in 2020 to $31.227 trillion  in 2023 (1^st place in the world) [3,4]. The country’s GDP at purchasing power parity per capita is significantly lower (97^th place), but has also been demonstrating positive dynamics: from $16,400 in 2020 to $22,100 in 2023 [3]. The level of inflation almost doubled from 1.5% in 2017 to 2.8% in 2019. However, in 2023 the inflation rate was only 0.23% [3]. The Global Competitiveness Report measures the effectiveness of China’s use of its resources for sustainable development; in addition to a number of economic indicators this index also takes into account such variables as education, health, level of innovation, etc.
High-technology exports in 2021 was 30% of manufactured exports. According to the Index of Economic Freedom, which is based on freedom of business, freedom from government intervention, property protection, and freedom from corruption, China was 151^st in 2024, out of the 184 considered, placing it among the "repressed" countries. In terms of gold reserves and foreign exchange reserves China was far ahead of many countries, including some EU countries, as of 2017. In terms of annual GDP growth China ranks 46^th in the world. In terms of public debt as a % of GDP China is 111^th out of 210 countries. Many Chinese energy companies, such as the State Grid, Sinopec Group, China National Petroleum, China Resources National, PetroChina, China Petroleum & Chemical Corp., CNOOC ltd, China Coal Energy Co Ltd, etc. are included in rankings of the largest energy companies, such as the Global 500 and S & P Global Platts 2017 Top 250.

China has significant reserves of fossil and unconventional energy resources (Table 1). In terms of oil and gas reserves, the country was 12^th and 9^th in the world, respectively, and in terms of coal reserves the country is second only to the USA [3,6]. According to data for 2024 in terms of tons of oil equivalent, proven coal reserves were 109.91; natural gas was 5.99; and oil was 3.55 (Fig.5). The Matrix of unconventional resources looks somewhat different: oil shale (kerogen) – 60.8%; shale gas – 32.7%; shale (tight) oil – 4.9%; coal mine methane utilization potential – 1.5%; and oil sands and extra heavy oil – 0.1% (Fig.7).

Table 1. Fossil energy resources of China

*share of the country’s reserves in world total is provided in brackets
**reserves
***in-place resources

According to the Central Intelligence Agency, at the beginning of 2021 proven oil reserves in China were estimated at 26.023 billion barrels [3]. Proven oil reserves at the end of 2020 were estimated at 26 billion barrels in BP’s annual report [6].
Proven natural gas reserves in China at the beginning of 2021 were 6.654 Tcm, according to [3] and 8.4 Tcm at the end of 2020, according to [6].
In 2023 coal reserves in China were estimated at 173 108 million short tons according to [19], and according to Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), they were estimated at 146 347 million tons in 2022 [7]. According to Advanced Energy Technologies calculations, the methane utilization potential (according to the methodology based on methane emissions from coal mining [8] and its reserves in 2018 from [6]) was 1 310-3 287 Bcm. According to Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR) [7], CBM reserves were estimated at 340 Bcm. China has the largest shale gas reserves in the world, the unproved technically recoverable reserves of which in 2013 were 1 115.2 Tcf [9], and the reserves of shale (tight) oil were estimated at 32.2 billion barrels (3^rd place in the world, after the USA and Russia) [9]. In the World Energy Council report from 2008, reserves of kerogen oil were estimated at 354 430 million barrels, and the reserves of extra-heavy oil at 750 million barrels [10]. China, owning to its geographic location, has a variety of renewable sources for energy production. A selection of basic indicators of this type of resource is presented in Table 2. The level of direct solar irradiation for the majority of the country is between 4.1-4.7 kWh/m²/day [11]. In the southwest of the country, in the Tibet region, as well as on the border with India, Nepal and Bhutan, this indicator can reach 5.7-6.3 kWh/m²/day [11].
The distribution of wind resources is as follows: for the majority of the country at a height of 50 m wind speed does not exceed 6.5 m/sec, but in the southwest of Fujian Province; in the provinces of Xizang and Xinjiang wind speed can reach a maximum of 8.75 m/sec [12].

Table 2. Renewable energy resources of China

*for the majority of the territory of the country
**economically exploitable capability

At 2,140,000 GWh/year China has the second largest hydropower potential in the world, after Russia. In 2016, 41% of this potential is being utilized [13]. The wave energy potential on the coast of the South China Sea can reach 10-15 kW/m per year [14]. According to data for 2021, 55.5% of the territory of the country is occupied by agricultural land, the area of which has been steadily increasing during the last half-century [15]. There has also been a slight increase in forest area, to 23.6% of the country's territory [16]. China is one of the world leaders in the total area of forests and agricultural land, and in the production of sawn wood and livestock, which is a rich resource for the development of bioenergy. The geothermal potential of the country, according to the 2016 Annual U.S. & Global Geothermal Power Production Report, was estimated at 6 744 MW [17].

CHINA, HANZHONG
Latitude: 33.07, Longitude: 107.03

Average daily sky coverage over 10 years of observations, %

CLR - clear, SCT - scattered from 1/8 TO 4/8, BKN - broken from 5/8 TO 7/8, OVC - overcast, OBS - obscured, POB - partial obscuration

Source: based on NOAA U.S. Department of Commerce
Detailed information: Interactive map of solar resources

CHINA, YUEYANG
Latitude: 29.38, Longitude: 113.08
Average speed: 2.66 m/s, Operational share: 51%

Average daily wind speed for 10 years of observations, m/s, 10 m above the ground

Source: based on NOAA U.S. Department of Commerce
Detailed information: Interactive map of wind resources  

In 2016, the level of municipal waste generation in China was 0.43 kg per capita per day, lower than in Japan (1.71 kg per capita per day) and South Korea (1.24 kg per capita per day) [18]. This resource is a valuable raw material for recycling or energy production, the technologies of which are being actively developed in China.

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (Sep 2024) / www.eia.gov

Figure 2. The production and consumption of fossil fuels in China (coal – left, gas – in the center, oil – right)

In 2022, China LNG imports decreased by 20%, second-highest global LNG importer, behind Japan [20]. The main suppliers of LNG are Qatar, Australia, Malaysia, and Indonesia. In 2018, deliveries of liquefied gas from Russia started from the new export terminal on the Yamal Peninsula along the Northern Sea Route. Source [3] provides data on the import and export of natural gas, which amounted in 2022 to 142.784 billion m³ and 5.617 billion m³, respectively.
China is the largest consumer and producer of coal, and the country's share in world coal consumption in 2022 is about 53% [20]. Coal production in the country has been growing since 2003 and in 2013 reached a maximum of 4 380 million short tons; it subsequently slightly declined to 3 797 million short tons in 2017, and in 2023 amounted to 4 808 million short tons. Coal consumption also increased and in 2013 reached 4 678 million short tons, before decreasing to 4 210 by 2017, and in 2023 reached a level of 5 156 million short tons [19]. According to the Statistical Review of World Energy 2024, in 2023, coal consumption totalled 91.94 Exajoules, while production was 93.10 Exajoules [6]. In recent years there has been a gradual increase in the share of renewable energy sources and a decrease in the share of fossil fuels in China (Fig. 3).

In 2023, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, electricity generation amounted to 9 224 TWh and was dominated by fossil fuels – 64.3%, followed by renewable sources – 18.0%, hydropower – 13.3%, and nuclear power – 4.4%, (Fig.9). China’s position in the comparative diagram of energy index is shown in Figure 4.

As previously mentioned China possesses exceptionally rich reserves of all types of fossil fuels, and in terms of the production and consumption ratio of coal is among the 25% leading countries. At the same time, the production and consumption ratio of oil and gas is below the world average. In terms of the share of electricity production from renewable energy sources (excluding hydropower), China was 46^th out of 170 countries.
China was below the world average in terms of GDP per unit of energy use in 2020 – 51^st out of 66 countries considered, but places higher by this indicator per capita – 36^th place.
In terms of electric power consumption per capita, China is 71^st out of 216 countries considered. In terms of combined of electricity production - consumption, the country at the very top of the rating.

A territorial map showing the distribution of the largest infrastructure projects of the fossil fuel sector in China is shown in Figure 5. The proven reserves of coal account for 92% of total fossil fuel resources, followed by natural gas – 5%, and oil – 3% (Fig.5).
The largest reserves of crude oil in China come from Daqing, developed by PetroChina. In 2023 Daqing Oilfield had produced 30.041 million tons of crude oil [21]. In 2022, 140 Chinese refineries had a total installed capacity of 13.4 million barrels/day [22]. The country's largest refinery is Zhenhai, owned by Sinopec, with an installed capacity of 23 million tons per year [23] (Fig.5).

Figure 5. Basic infrastructure facilities of the fossil fuel sector China: conventional oil (click on the map to view a PDF version)

The import of oil and oil products is carried out through 5 key oil terminals, and the largest oil storage is also Zhenhai (32.7 mln. bbl). The total installed capacity of oil storage facilities in the country is 103.1 million barrels [24]. Transportation of oil and oil products is carried out through pipelines with a total length of 22,900 km and 25,500 respectively (Fig.5). It is important to note that the western and eastern regions of the country, which have different resource opportunities, are connected by pipelines. Oil production and storage are also carried out through FPSO, the largest of which is Bohai Ming Zhu of ConocoPhillips/CNOOC. The installed capacity of FPSO Bohai Ming Zhu in oil production is 80,000 bpd, gas production is at the level of 6 MMscfd, the storage capacity is 1,000 MBBLs [25,26].
Natural gas extraction fields in China are mainly located in the east of the country. Other gas production centres are located in the north-western and central regions of China. One of the major gas fields of the country is Sulige (Fig.6). In 2022, the annual output of the field reached a record of 30.04 billion cubic meters [27]. Gas is transported within the country via a network of pipelines with a total length of 70,000 km, and stored in 25 underground gas storage facilities (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. Basic infrastructure facilities of the fossil fuel sector in China: conventional natural gas (click on the map to view a PDF version)

Gas is imported via 21 LNG terminals, the largest is Guangdong Dapeng I with a throughput of 6.8 MTPA (million tonnes/year) [28]. The largest gas storage facility is Hutubi which is capable of storing 10.70 Bcm of gas [29]. At the end of 2017, the construction of the second line of the Skovorodino-Daqing oil pipeline was completed on Chinese territory, which increased the supply of oil from Russia via this pipeline to 30 million tons per year. In addition, in 2010 China requested Rosneft to increase oil deliveries by rail through Kazakhstan from 10 to 13 million tons per year. In December 2019, deliveries of natural gas from Russia started via the "The Power of Siberia" gas pipeline, with a capacity of 61 billion cubic metres per year. The gas is mainly supplied from Chayandinskoye in Russia, and development of the Kovykta field in Eastern Siberia is also planned. It has already been mentioned that in 2018, liquefied gas supplies from Russia were launched from the new terminal on the Yamal Peninsula along the Northern Sea Route. China, in addition to receiving an increased supply of oil and gas from Russia, is actively participating in shared ownership and investment in the development of Russian oil and gas fields. Thus, Russia is becoming one of China's main energy partners.

Figure 7. Basic infrastructure facilities of the fossil fuel sector in China: unconventional oil and gas fields (click on the map to view a PDF version)

The main extraction fields of kerogen oil are located in 4 Chinese provinces and 5 cities: Liaoning (Fushun), Guangdong (Maoming), Jilin (Huadian and Nonang), Shandong (Longkou) [30].
The processing infrastructure of kerogen oil is represented by several vertical and horizontal retorting plants (Fig.7). The main potential deposits of shale gas and shale oil are located in 3 basins – the Sichuan, Tarim and Yangjing basins, which account for 89% of the estimated national reserves [31,32]. The largest shale gas field is Fuling, developed by Sinopec; with production at the level of about 6.0 bln cbm/year [33]. China is the world's second largest producer of coal mine methane in the world. In the central part of the country methane coal seams are disposed of in several large coal deposits (Fig.7).
One of the most promising trends in the development of China's gas industry, judging by the explosive growth of theoretical and experimental research, is the development of industrial technologies for the production of gas hydrates. Studies of gas hydrates are carried out in many regions of the country, but the main development base of industrial technologies is the South China Sea (Fig.7). According to reports in the Chinese press, successful industrial tests have been conducted, which predict the commercial production of gas hydrates by 2030 with a high probability [36]. This has the potential to dramatically change the energy picture not only in China, but globally. China, following developments in South Africa, is actively developing technologies for coal gasification and the production of liquid hydrocarbons. The Coal-to-Liquids processing infrastructure is represented by a number of enterprises in Inner Mongolia, the leading example being Ordos (Shenhua Group), with an installed capacity of 24,000 barrels/day (bpd [37] (Fig. 8). Coal gasification technology is represented by the Ulan Qab (Wulanchabu) facility, with a capacity of 5 MW [38]. Around 14 gasification stations in the central part of the country, as well as in Inner Mongolia, are also under construction.

Figure 8. Basic infrastructure facilities of the fossil fuel sector in China: synthetic fuels processing infrastructure facility (click on the map to view a PDF version)

China is the world's leading producer of methanol; the share of China in the world's production is slightly under 50%. The main purpose of methanol is its further use in the production of chemical products, mainly fertilizers. However, it is also used in electrical engineering for the production of various fuels, principally dimethylether. Among the methanol production and processing facilities, the JiutaiErdos DME plant in inner Mongolia should be mentioned, with an installed capacity of 1 million tons of methanol per year [39], and Jincheng MTG Plant, Jincheng Anthracite Mining Co., Ltd, with an installed capacity of 300,000 t/a methanol and 2500 bbl/d of gasoline [40] (Fig. 8).

A map showing the territorial distribution of Chinese infrastructure facilities for electricity generation is presented in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Electricity production in China: thermal and coal power plants (click on the map to view a PDF version)

As already noted, the share of coal in the potential of fossil resources is significant. In total there are more than 10 760 coal mines in the country, producing around 4 279.8 million short tons annually (Fig.9).
Coal mines are mainly concentrated in the central and north-eastern part of the country. Inner Mongolia has the richest coal resource base; coal mining in this region totalled 1 123.46 mln t/year  in 2014 [41]. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, the share of fossil hydrocarbon resources in power generation in China in 2023 was 64.3% (Fig.9). China has a significant number of stations for the production of electricity from hydrocarbons, including power plants with a capacity of more than 1,000 MW: four oil, eleven gas, eleven coal and six combined type power plants (Fig.9).
The largest power generating facilities in China are: Black Point gas power plant with a capacity of 2,500 MW [42]; Penny’s Bay oil power plant, with installed capacity of 300 MW [43]; Datang Tuoketuo, one of the world's largest coal power plants, with an installed capacity of 6,720 MW; and Jinling combined type power plant with an installed capacity of 2840 MW [44,45].

Figure 10. Electricity production in China: hydro and nuclear power plants, lithium (click on the map to view a PDF version)

Hydropower in China produces about 13.3% of the country’s electricity generation, and is represented by pumped storage plants, and large and small hydroelectric plants (Fig. 10). The Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydropower plant in the world, and has an installed capacity of 22,500 MW [46]. China is also home to the largest pumped storage plant in the world; Fengning has an installed capacity of 3,600 MW. It was put into operation in 2021 [47]. China registered about 43 957 small-scale hydropower plants up to 50 MW with a total installed capacity of 81.3 GW, generating roughly 242 TWh per year (Fig.10). In recent years, China build a large number of new stations, including the Baihetan Dam (16,000 MW), the Wudongde Dam (10,200 MW), and the Maerdang Dam (2,200 MW). The main uranium mines are located in the east of the country. The largest is Yining, from which 480 tU/year of raw materials in 2016 [48].

Night scene of three gorges dam closeup. Envato Elements. SVJBPH5L7W

Nuclear power in the country is represented by 16 nuclear power plants, which produce around 4.4% of China’s electricity generation (Fig.10). The largest station of this type is Hongyanhe with an installed capacity of 4,242 megawatts [49]. Since 2004 China has shown a downward trend in the annual growth of electricity consumption. At the same time, the government of China has approved several changes in the energy sector. First, there will be a significant reduction in coal consumption, for example, it is planned to reduce consumption in some regions in the east of the country, including the capital region, by 10%, and in the delta region of the Yangzi River by 5%. Other development prospects are related to the active development of the nuclear industry. By 2030 it is planned to increase the total capacity of nuclear power plants to 130 GW. Since 2004 the salt mine near Lake Zabuye, in the Shigatse Prefecture of the Tibet Autonomous Region, has been producing lithium. In 2008, Zhabuye Lithium produced 1.556.5 tonnes of lithium carbonate and was the main source of lithium in China [50].

In Figure 11, you can see the main facilities of China for the production of energy from renewable sources.

Figure 11. Renewable energy in China: geothermal, hydrogen, marine, solar, wind (click on the map to view a PDF version)

As noted above, renewable energy in China, excluding hydropower, has around an 18% share in electricity generation. Thus, the total production of electricity from renewable sources, excluding hydropower, in 2022 was 1321.36 TWh (Fig.11). In zones of high wind activity there are around twenty large offshore and onshore wind farms, each with a capacity of more than 300 MW. One of the largest offshore wind farms is the SPIC Binhai North H2, which an installed capacity of 400 MW [51]. The leading onshore wind farm is Gansu (Jiuquan) with an installed capacity of 7.965 MW, which is planned to be increased to 20,000 MW [52]. According to GWEC [56], in 2023 China installed 58% of all new global offshore wind capacity.  China lead the global offshore wind development for the sixth year in a row adding 6.3 GW in 2023 and bringing its total offshore wind installations to 38 GW.

Aerial view of wind farms, xinjiang, China. Envato Elements. MFWAJTH8D4

As previously mentioned, the level of solar radiation in some areas of the country can reach 5.7 kWh/m²/day, which is a sufficient resource for energy production [10]. As a result, there are a number of solar energy facilities installed in these areas, including PV power plants, CPV and CSP power plants (Fig.11). Thus, the five largest PV stations in the world include the Chinese Tengger Desert Solar Park Plant with a capacity of 1,547 MW, Datong Solar Power Top Runner (1000 MW), and Base Longyangxia Dam Solar Park (850 MW). The leading CPV installation in the country is Golmud 1-2, Suncore with a capacity of 137.8 MW [54,55,56]. Among parabolic type CSP stations, the largest is Urat Middle Banner, with a capacity of 100 MW [57], and among the existing tower-type stations with a thermal storage the largest are SunCan Dunhuang Phase I with a capacity of 10 MW [58], and Golmud which is currently under construction, and will have a capacity of 200 MW [59]. In addition, Chinese companies are leading the world market in both the production of poly and monocrystalline silicon, which is the basic element for the production of solar panels, as well as the panels themselves. Among these companies are global industry leaders including Trina Solar (China), JinkoSolar (China), JA Solar (China), GCL and LONGi Solar. It should also be noted that China is the world leader in the installation of solar water heating systems (solar water heating); China possesses about 70% of all installed capacities in the world.
The wave energy potential in the coastal areas of China can reach 10-15 kWh, as a result, there is a number of tidal power stations installed, including the Jiangxia Tidal Power Plant with an installed capacity of 3.2 MW [60]. To dispose of the geothermal potential of China, which was estimated at 9,057 MW [24], various technologies are used, including Double flash type stations, such as Yangbajain with an installed capacity of 25.1 MW [61]. China actively develops hydrogen power as a source of energy for vehicles. There are hydrogen production facilities in the country, the largest of which is Caojing (Air Liquide-Praxair), with an installed capacity of 185,000 Nm³/hr [62] and Ynnovate Sanzheng Fine Chemicals (Yingkou) Hydrogen Fuel Cell plants with an installed capacity of 2 MW [63]. As of 2024, China ranks ranking first in the world in the number of hydrogen refueling stations having about 300 in operation [64]. Hydrogen is transported via 5 small pipelines (Fig.11) [65]. The Hydrogenics Corporation received a contract for the supply of fuel cell power systems for zero-emission vehicles with a total value of $ 7.8 million [66].

Figure 12 shows the main bioenergy facilities for energy production.

Figure 12. Renewable energy in China: Bioenergy (click on the map to view a PDF version)

According to IRENA in 2023, the installed capacity of renewable energy in the country was 1453.70 GWe, where the share of bioenergy was about 2.2% [67]. The country has biomass and municipal waste processing plants, biodiesel, and pellet production, etc. (Fig. 12).
The main enterprise for the production of fuels from biomass is Changsha, Hunan Zhonghe Energy Biodiesel Plant with an installed capacity of 500,000 t/year [68]. Sovren Biomass Co. is the operator of the largest Zhanjiang biomass production plant, capable of producing 100,000 tons of raw materials per year [69]. China is actively engaged in the production of bioethanol, and Jilin 1 can produce about 600,000 tons per year [70]. Second-generation bioethanol from cellulose is produced at the Yucheng plant, which has an installed capacity of 60,000 t/ year [71]. The largest biogas plant in the country is Penglai with an installed capacity of 3 MW [72]. China is one of the world leaders in biogas production, along with the US and Germany. Among other enterprises, it is worth mentioning the Hefei, Anhui USTC Pilot Pyrolysis Plant with a capacity of 120 kg/hour of bio-oil [73]; Biomass to Liquid Fuels Demonstration Facility Wuhan [74]; and Hongyi Biofuels in Linyi, which can produce 200,000 tons of pellets annually [75].
The leader among Chinese cities in the generation of electricity from municipal waste is Shanghai, whose enterprises can process 9,300 tons per day [76]. Shanghai Laogang generates about 15 MW of electricity from landfill gas [77]. In June 2024, the installed capacity of renewable energy power generation in China reached 1.653 billion kilowatts, a year-on-year increase of 25%, accounting for about 53.8% of total installed power generation capacity [78]. Power generated from renewable energy sources such as wind and solar now accounts for more than 15 percent of China's total electricity consumption [79]. According to data from the China Statistical Bureau, in 2023 electricity generated by solar energy was 280.8 TWh [80]. However, it should be noted that China is considering the possibility of refusing government subsidies for supporting renewable energy. As for fossil energy sources, it is worth noting the reduction in the growth rates of production volumes to 3.9 billion tons in 2020 (0.8% over the five-year period) and consumption to 4.1 billion tonnes (0.7%). Forecasts that due to the closure of obsolete coal industry infrastructure facilities, there would also be a decline in production capacity to 0.8 billion tons per year have not been realized, and according to the National Bureau of Statistics, China produced 405.4 million tonnes of coal in June 2024 [81, 82].

The set of indices reflecting the position of China among other countries in the field of education and innovation can be seen in Figure 13. It can be seen from the diagram that China has a very high level of academic achievement. According to the Global Innovation Index 2024, China is ranked 11^th out of 133 countries (see diagram).
According to the number of patents granted to Chinese nationals, both domestically and abroad, the country ranks 2^nd in the world, after Japan and the U.S. By the number of patents in force, the country is 3^rd in the world, indicating the country’s favorable conditions for innovation. China is very well positioned when considering the number of publications of specialists in scientific and technological journal and patent activities. The country is 2^nd only to the U.S. in the Scimago ranking, and in Scientific and Technical Journal Activities it is ranked 1^st out of 197 countries; 58 Chinese universities are included in the rating of the world leading universities: the “QS University Rating”.
 

Chinese universities such as Peking University, Tsinghua University, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing Jiaotong University, the National University of Defense Technology, Central South University, Zhengzhou University, Beijing University of Technology, and Yunnan University, train specialists in various fields of energy, including Environmental Engineering, Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering, etc.
In the field of synthetic fuel technology, Sinopec, Wuhan Kaidi Engineering Technology Research General Insitute Co., Ltd, Sinopec Research Institute of Petroleum Engineering, and Shenhua Group Co.,Ltd actively patent their inventions. Research in this area is carried out by the CAS ICC Institute of Coal Chemistry, ECUST East China University of Science & Technology, CUMT China University of Mining and Technology.
In the field of unconventional oil, Sinopec, PetroChina Company Limited, Beijing Junlun Runzhong Science & Technology Co. Ltd, Fushun Mining Group Co., Ltd, CNOOC China National Offshore Oil Corporation lead by number of patents. Studies in this area are conducted by UPC China University of Petroleum, PetroChina Company Limited, JLU Jilin University, NEPU Northeast Petroleum University.

Beijing Sunset Scene. Envato Elements. RFZHX7EGDC

In the sector of associated petroleum gas, the largest number of inventions is registered by Synfuels China Technology Co., Ltd, Xi’an Changging Technology Engineering Co., Ltd, CNOOC China National Offshore Oil Corporation. SWPU Southwest Petroleum University, PetroChina Company Limited, and CNOOC China National Offshore Oil actively publish scientific works in this field.
CUMT China University of Mining and Technology, PetroChina Company Limited, UPC China University of Petroleum, HPU Henan Polytechnic University are leading in the number of patents in coalbed methane mining technologies, and studies are conducted by COGB China University of Geosciences. In the field of hydrocarbon production from low-permeability reservoirs, the absolute leaders in patenting are PetroChina Company Limited, Sinopec, CNPC CCDC Chuanging Drilling Engineering Company Limited, South West Petroleum University. Studies are conducted by the UPC China University of Petroleum, PetroChina Company Limited, PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, and SWPU Southwest Petroleum University.
CAS GIEC Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, DLUT Dalian University of Technology patent their developments in the field of gas hydrate production technologies. CUGB China University of Geosciences, Gunagzhou Marine Geological Survey, CAS GIEC Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, UPC China University of Petroleum actively publish scientific works in this field.
Patents in bioenergetic technologies are possessed by Wuhan Kaidi Engineering Technology Research Research General Insititute Co., Ltd, Sunshine Kaidi New Energy Group Co. Ltd, CAS GIEC Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, and SEU Southeast University. Scientific research in the same field is conducted by the UCAS University of Chinese Academy of Sciencem CAS QIBEBT Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Zhejiang University, TJU Tianjin University.
A large number of companies patent inventions and conduct research in the field of renewable energy technologies. In the field of solar energy – Chengdu Juhe Technology Co. Ltd, Wuhan Kaidi Engineering Technology Research General Institute Co., Ltd., THU Tsinghua University, Xiangtan Electric Manufacturing Co., Ltd. NCEPU North China Electric Power University, and Shanghai Jiao Tong University lead by their numbers of patents. Inventions in the field of wind energy are patented by Sinovel Wind Group Co Ltd, State Grid Corporation of China, Geijing Goldwind Science & Creation Windpower Equipment Co Ltd, and research is conducted by the NCEPU North China Electric Power University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China Electric Power Research Institute, CQU Chongging University.

The environmental indices shown in Figure 14 represent to some extent the ecological situation in the country, which in the case of China is quite negative. The country demonstrates a relatively high level of CO₂ emissions both in general, and per capita. It is also necessary to note the very high level of methane emissions in the country. China ranks 37^th in the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2022, which includes the 61 countries responsible for more than 90% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions. The compilers of the ratings gave China a "very low" rating, based on the fact that China is the world's largest emitter of GHG emissions, but the experts regard country’s climate policy as ambitious, with clear policies and timelines. In terms of forest area as a percentage of the country, China in 2020 was 137^th out of 234; however, the trend associated with its change from 2010-2020 looks very positive, the country is the world leader.
However, in the Environmental Performance Index rankings (EPI-2020), which focuses primarily on assessing the environmental performance of national governments, strategies aimed at reducing the negative impact of the environment, and the rational use of natural resources, the country was 120^th out of 180 countries in 2020.
 

The overall negative picture is aggravated by the Ecological Footprint Atlas rating, according to which China is among a number of major ecological debtors.

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[9] World Shale Resource Assessments / U.S. Energy Information Administration (September 24, 2015 )/ www.eia.gov
[10] 2010 Survey of Energy Resources (PDF)/ World Energy Council / www.worldenergy.org
[11] Solar resource data obtained from the Global Solar Atlas, owned by the World Bank Group and provided by Solargis / Global Solar Atlas / globalsolaratlas.info
[12] Wind Map / Global Wind Atlas 2.0, a free, web-based application developed, owned and operated by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) in partnership with the World Bank Group, utilizing data provided by Vortex, with funding provided by the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP). For additional information: globalwindatlas.info
[13] World Energy Resources Hydropower 2016 (PDF) / World Energy Council  / www.worldenergy.org
[14] World wave energy resource map / Wikipedia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_power
[15] Agricultural land (% of land area) /Food and Agriculture Organization, electronic files and web site. License: CC BY-4.0 /  Data / The World Bank / www.worldbank.org
[16] Forest area (% of land area) /Food and Agriculture Organization, electronic files and web site. License: CC BY-4.0 /  Data / The World Bank / www.worldbank.org
[17] 2016 Annual U.S. & Global Geothermal Power Production Report (PDF)/ Geothermal Energy Association / geo-energy.org
[18] What a Waste 2012 (PDF) / Resources /  The World Bank / www.worldbank.org
[19] International Energy Statistic / Geography / U.S. Energy Information Administration /http://www.eia.gov/
[20] Сhina / U.S. Energy Information Administration (2023) / www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.php
[21] Oil And Gas Production Equivalent Of PetroChina Daqing Oilfield Exceeds 40 Million Tons Again / Dec 30, 2023 / https://www.jielinsenoil.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-equivalent-of-petrochin-73767735.html
[22] OPEC Annual Statistical Bulletin 2023 (PDF)/ Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) /  www.opec.org
[23] 中国20大炼油厂排名，中国20大地炼厂年炼油能力 / 楚天皓月0713的博客 / blog.sina.com.cn
[24] International Petroleum Encyclopaedia 2010, book  /  International Petroleum Encyclopaedia 2010 / www.academia.edu  
[25] China / FPSO List / /http://fpso.com/
[26]  Worldwide Survey of Floating Production, Storage and Offloading (FPSO) Units / August 2014 / Offshore Magazine / www.offshore-mag.com/ ;
[27] Annual output of China's major onshore gas field exceeds 30 bln cubic meters /  December 26, 2022  / Belt and Road Portal / https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/
[28] IGU 2017 World LNG Report / International Gas Union /  www.igu.org
[29] Underground Gas Storage in the World – 2017 Status (July 2017) / Cedigaz / www.cedigaz.org
[30] Asia / Oil shale reserves / Wikipedia /  en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shale_reserves
[31] Technically Recoverable Shale Oil and Shale Gas Resources: An Assessment of 137 Shale Formations in 41 countries outside the United States (PDF) / June 2013 Report / U.S. Energy Information Administration (June 2013) / www.eia.gov/  ;  
[32] Shale gas in China / Wikipedia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale_gas_in_China
[33] Sinopec Fuling shale gas field accomplishes 2017 annual production target / January 04, 2018 / sxcoal.com / www.sxcoal.com
[34] CNPC Liaohe oilfield 2014 crude output at 10.219 mln t / January 09, 2015 / Xinhua Finance Agency / en.xinfinance.com
[35] China’s CBM Output Reported To Have Fallen In 2016 / Anna Kachkova / January 24, 2017 / NEWSBASE / newsbase.com/  ;
[36] 中国掀起“可燃冰革命”！美日虎视眈眈 / November 21, 2017 / 5e / www.china5e.com
[37] Overview of Coal and Coal-Biomass to Liquids (C&CBTL) Program, 2014 (PDF) / National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) / www.netl.doe.gov/   ;  
[38] Underground Coal Gasification Environmental Risks and Benefits (PDF) / Jeremy Moorhouse, Marc Huot, Matt McCulloch /  Pembina Institute / www.pembina.org/ ;  
[39] About Jiutai / Jiutai Group / www.chinajiutai.com
[40] Coal liquefaction / Wikipedia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_liquefaction
[41] Key China Energy Statistics 2016 / China Energy Group /  china.lbl.gov  
[42] Black Point Power Station / Wikipedia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Point_Power_Station
[43] Penny's Bay Power Station / CLP / www.clp.com.hk
[44] Datang Tuoketuo power station / Source Watch / www.sourcewatch.org
[45] List of major power stations in  Jiangsu province / Wikipedia /  en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_major_power_stations_in_Jiangsu_province
[46] Three Gorges Dam / Wikipedia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam
[47] New Chinese pumped-storage hydro plant to be “world’s largest” when complete in 2021 / May 09, 2017 / Hydroworld.com / www.hydroworld.com
[48] China’s Nuclear Fuel Cycle (Updated April 2018) / World Nuclear Association /   www.world-nuclear.org
[49] Nuclear Power in China (Updated April 2018) / World Nuclear Association /  www.world-nuclear.org
[50] Lithium Mining in China / Lithium Mine.com/ www.lithiummine.com
[51] SPIC Binhai North H2 / 4C Offshore / www.4coffshore.com
[52] Gansu Wind Farm  / Wikipedia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu_Wind_Farm
[53] Top 10 Cumulative capacity Dec 2017  / Global Wind Energy Council / gwec.net  
[54] TOP 5 LARGEST SOLAR POWER PLANTS OF THE WORLD / Solar Insure / www.solarinsure.com
[55] Golmud 1 (57.96 MWp) / China / CPV Consortium / cpvconsortium.org
[56] Global wind report 2021 (PDF) / GWEC / gwec.net
[57] Urat Middle Banner 100MW Thermal Oil Parabolic Trough project /  National Renewable Energy Laboratory: CSP Projects / www.nrel.gov
[58] SunCan Dunhuang 10 MW Phase I / National Renewable Energy Laboratory: CSP Projects / www.nrel.gov
[59] Golmud / National Renewable Energy Laboratory: CSP Projects / www.nrel.gov
[60] Jiangxia Tidal Power Station / Wikipedia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiangxia_Tidal_Power_Station
[61] Yangbajain Geothermal Power Plant / Industry About / www.industryabout.com
[62] Merchant Hydrogen Plant Capacities in Asia / HYARC / Hydrogen tools /
h2tools.org
[63]START-UP OF A MEGAWATT-SCALE FUEL CELL WITHIN FCH JU INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION WITH CHINA / Fuel Cells and Hydrogen / www.fch.europa.eu
[64] China tops world in hydrogen stations, fueling a clean energy future /  01-Jan-2024 / CGTN / https://news.cgtn.com/
[65] Hydrogen Pipelines / Hydrogen Analysis Resource Center / hydrogen.pnl.gov
[66]  Hydrogenics receives $7.8m fuel cell order in China /  January 18, 2018 / gasworld / www.gasworld.com
[67] 2020 / Installed capacity / China / Technologies / International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) /  resourceirena.irena.org
[68] Biofuels – At What Cost? Government support for ethanol and biodiesel in China, November 2008 / Global Subsidies Initiative (GSI) of the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) / www.iisd.org/     ;  
[69] China's largest biomass fuel project begins operation in Zhanjiang / December 06, 2017 / China Daily /
www.chinadaily.com.cn
[70] Josef Modi: Jilin fuel ethanol plant /  Vogelbusch Company /  www.vogelbusch-biocommodities.com
[71] Longlive Bio-technology Co. Ltd. / IEA Bioenergy Task 39 / demoplants.bioenergy2020.eu
[72] This pile of manure is  gold / September 29, 2009 / China.org / www.china.org.cn  
[73] Projects  / Demoplants 21 /http://demoplants21.bioenergy2020.eu/
[74] Commercial Operating Facilities / Projects / Westinghouse Electric Corporation / www.westinghouse-plasma.com  
[75] Large Industrial Users of Energy Biomass, September 2013 / IEA Bioenergy Task 40 / bioenergytrade.org
[76] Waste-to-Energy in China (February 2017) (PDF)/ United Nations Office for Sustainable Development / www.unosd.org
[77] Project 6348 : Laogang Landfill Gas Recovery and Utilization Project /  Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) / cdm.unfccc.int
[78] 风电光伏发电合计装机首超煤电 / Wind power and photovoltaic power generation installed capacity exceeds coal-fired power for the first time / August 16, 2024 / National Energy Administration  / www.nea.gov.cn/2024-08/16/c_1310784513.htm
[79] China drives world renewables capacity addition in 2023 / The State Council the People's Republic of China / english.www.gov.cn
[80] Release Calendar / National Bureau of Statistics  of China / www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/
[81] China's Energy Policy And Related Issues Towards 2020 / Takuma Yatsui /  Monthly Report April 2017 / Mitsui Global Strategic Studies Institute / www.mitsui.com
[82] National Bureau of Statistics  of China / www.stats.gov.cn/english/

The sources of charts and curves are specified under the images.

For more information about the energy industry in China see here